The Great Lunar Cycle: The Horse Twins and the Grail: Part 12 of 12

The Great Lunar Cycle: The Horse Twins and the Grail: Part 12 of 12

< Part 11

The Grail Question

        A mysterious question famously becomes central to the success of Perceval's quest in Chretien's poem. This question is of course, “whom does the Grail serve?”, which Perceval at first fails to ask, but which is said (by the weeping maiden he encounters holding her dead lover) to bring the Fisher King great succor if asked. Much confusion has surrounded this question in the scholarship, and perhaps it will remain mysterious for awhile more. However, in the Indian version we have discussed, specifically the version of the tale found in the Satapatha Brahmana, there in fact is a magical, riddling question associated with allowing the Asvins' to accede to the soma rite. Indeed, there are two such questions which come in succession. Despite this seemingly miraculous correspondence of there being key questions in these vastly distant branches, these two questions in the Indian version are difficult to fit to the question we find in the Grail version. As such, it could be that the questions in the two branches are not the same at their root. However, the possibility still has to be examined.

First, Sukanya says to the Asvins, after rejecting their advances, “But surely ye are neither quite complete nor quite perfect, and yet deride my husband!” The Asvins respond then with the first question: “In what respect are we incomplete, in what respect imperfect?” Only after they have rejuvenated Sukanya's husband does Chyavana tell them the answer to the question, which is, “yonder gods perform a sacrifice and exclude you from it” (Satapatha Brahmana). They then set off to the place of the sacrifice and demand an invitation. When they are denied, they formulate their own special riddle. “But surely you worship a headless sacrifice” they say, to which is responded the second query, “How with a headless sacrifice?” The Twins demand inclusion in the rite in exchange for the answer to their riddle. So they are included, and as a result explain that they, the Asvins, are the heads because the leaders of the sacrifice, and this because they are the “Adhvaryus,” a term for a kind of Vedic priest who assisted the reciter of the litanies and who took care of the physical aspects of the sacrifice, one of whose duties was to pour the soma juice into the receptacles. This could also be interpreted as pointing to the Asvins' position as leading the way, astrologically and metaphysically speaking, for the new morning and thus for the sacrifice, as they are said to do in the Rig Veda with their possible identification with the morning star. Thus the riddling question and its answer reveal that the inherent divine nature of the Asvins in itself indicates their proper place in the rite, that it is in their nature and destiny to take their place in the rite and indeed that they are needed by it for its completion. 

Though the match across so much time and space to the Grail question is hazy, we can see that the Grail question too reveals Perceval's proper inborn role in its keeping. For with the response to this question it is revealed that Perceval is the nephew of the elder Grail King (just as Aengus is foster son of Midir or Freyr is son of Njörðr, and similar also to Aengus finding out that his true father is the Dagda) and thus a member of the family destined to be its keepers. It is also a question directly about the functionality of the rite, just as was the Asvins’ riddle. Finally its asking and answering allows the perfection, or the healing, of both the imperfect seekers and the wounded or headless rite. By asking whom the Grail serves, Perceval also shows his understanding of his own role to be one of serving, and accepts that role. In the same way, the Asvins proclaiming themselves “heads” or “leaders” of the sacrifice only implies that they go before the others to make the sacrifice ready, and that while now on equal footing with the other gods, they still function as one part (a head) within a body of functions that make up the rite and the divine society as a whole.

In essence, the questions of both branches are the question of self-identity, and lead to a rediscovery of who the quester has been all along. The process of this recognition has several steps: 1. The recognition of one's incompleteness (Sukanya tells the Asvins they are incomplete) 2. Learning the right question to ask (The Asvins and Perceval are prompted to raise the question) 3. Recognizing that there is a higher sacred sphere to aspire to (the Asvins learn of the higher rite; Perceval witnesses the Grail procession) 4. Asking the question of identity 5. Learning one's own deeper connection to the whole and to the sacred, discovering who one always has been despite being cut off from this identity. The quester has forgotten who he is, his true history, and his innate connection to the whole. Aengus has been raised as a foster-son of Midir and has never known his true father until he confronts Dagda. Pryderi was kidnapped as an infant and has been raised by a foster father, Teyrnon. The Asvins have been excluded from the society of high gods, but come to recognize their inborn role of Adhvaryu. Perceval, raised in the country without a father, comes to discover that he is actually the nephew of the Grail King himself and tied to the Grail by destiny. At the end of von Eschenbach's version, Parzival's name appears on the Grail itself. This element of the myth is partially obscured in the Norse version, yet Freyr still begins separate from the Aesir before ending up as one of the most beloved among them and an important officiant of the sacrifice in the end. This process of the recognition of one's identity and inborn role within the whole is Nietzsche's "become who you are," and relies on the question that each of us must first recognize, and then ask, before understanding our own role and destiny. 

That which can heal either the land or the headless sacrifice in either the Samvarana or the Asvins' tale is either returning to the neglected sacrifice or the rejuvenating power of the Horse Twins combined with their recognition and taking their place as the head of the sacrifice. Thus what finally heals the ailing Fisher King is Perceval asking the question which allows him to take his rightful place in, heal, and complete the rite; and likewise it is only the completed rite that can bring life back to the land which has turned waste without the rite's nourishment. While most interpreters have argued that the land has become waste simply because it is connected to the health of the king, we can see that there is much more importance placed on the "health" of the rite itself as the cure for the wasteland. While the Soma King does need specific healing in other branches (consider Chyavana and Midir needing their eyes healed; Chyavana and Njörðr needing to have their youth renewed by the herbal paste or golden apples), as accords with the ancient view of the rite (clear in Vedic tradition) as both bringing the rains and allowing the new day itself to be born, it is first and foremost the healed and properly observed rite which is the source of the health of both the king and the land (Samvarana finally returning to performing the rite heals the land; the sacrificial fire god Manawydan heals the land and retrieves Pryderi; the Asvins heal the sacrifice itself by completing it and causing it to function properly).

Conclusion

Thus in the Grail legend we have nearly all of the recognizable elements of this wider Lunar Cycle that we have identified elsewhere: 1.Separation of the Horse Twin hero from his mother, while also not knowing his true father 2.His involvement in an attempt to woo a married woman 3.A prophetic woman is attacked violently, leading directly to the later conflict in which the hero seeks vengeance for this violence 4.A golden consumable treasure is stolen from the king, leaving him and his family in a near-death paralysis, and it is then retrieved after a one-on-one battle 5.The eye piercing 6.Meeting his beloved at the midpoint 7.A mysterious castle appears in which is kept a golden dish/bowl 8.An old man needing healing and rejuvenation 9.The land has become an enchanted wasteland which must be healed 10.A riddle or riddling question, relating to the functioning of the sacred object and the deeper identity of the hero, that a woman makes the hero aware of 11.The hero is excluded from the court of the “high gods” (knights of Arthur) 12.He confronts and defeats the “high gods” (knights of Arthur)13.He is accepted into the court of "high gods" as a result 14.He gains the high rite for the first time 15.He learns the identity of his true father (and of himself), which links him to the rite 16.He may become keeper of the vessel of the high rite (the Grail).

Now, if we simply understand the role of keeper of the Grail as a natural cognate to priest of the high sacrifice, we see that a Horse Twin has renewed the vitality of a wounded old man and has then gained access to the holy sacrificial relic and become its priest, also joining the society of the high gods/knights after defeating them, along with all the other connected motifs we have become accustomed to seeing in this cycle. Thus the concordance of the Vedic myth with the Holy Grail legend is uncannily close. And as we have seen that the core of this suggested myth was widespread all across Europe, it stands to reason that it could easily have been known in other Welsh or French sources no longer available to us which could have served as a common basis drawn from by the texts that remain to us in this tradition. Indeed, we even see a strong connection with the Norse version of the myth in elements such as the Red Knight who steals the golden treasure and the prophetic woman who is struck, which leads to the later confrontation of Perceval and Arthur's knights. These "Nordic" elements suggest either that the French Chretien knew how to blend material from both the extant Germanic and Celtic versions in order to craft his poem, that he very much knew what he was doing as he worked with Lunar Cycle material both from Wales and the continent, or that he was working from a version of the cycle which already retained the mythos in a wondrously unified form. Indeed, Chretien's Grail poem seems an incredible synthesis of nearly all of the associated myths we have thus far called parts of the Lunar Cycle, either representing a masterwork of synthetic genius, or a more ancient, unified tradition that has here been miraculously preserved. The unavoidable conclusion that we are left with is that the Holy Grail legend and the Aesir-Vanir war cycle are one and the same myth, split up and changed over time, yet holding the same esoteric truth at its core.

The Grail quest then has an undeniable “lunar” character to it. But this does not sum up its meaning or the spiritual possibilities inherent in it. After all, all the high gods, even the most solar among them, partake of the lunar soma in order to maintain immortality. The Horse Twins themselves have a distinctly solar association as well, riding in the sun chariot and marrying solar princesses. Indeed, the Asvins were also sacrificed to at noon, and not only at dawn. Freyr riding the boar Gullinbursti whose golden mane glows in the dark may be another symbol of the morning star crossing the boundary between day and night or even of something else relating to the period of sunrise. As harbingers of the dawn, the Horse Twins more accurately form the link between the moon and sun. They are seemingly morning star at sunrise, bridging the gap between dark and light, between Soma and Ushas, bringing to the high gods the immortalizing nectar of the moon rescued from out of the darkness. 

This combined lunar and solar character may even be hinted at in the sacred items brought before Perceval in succession at the Grail castle in Chretien's poem. After the lance there is the Grail (a dish said to be of gold) followed by a silver carving platter. A gold dish or bowl followed by a silver platter immediately strikes one as solar and lunar imagery, the two symbols united in procession. The fact that the silver platter is said to be for carving, while the moon, as we have noted, is known as a divider (of time or fates) is a further interesting coincidence. In the Pryderi tale, of course, there is only a golden bowl with no mention of a silver platter, though there is a fountain beneath it, perhaps similar to the moon seen as the source of waters, or even to Mimir's Well. We may say that the Grail itself is generally gold, with possible (though not necessarily) solar significance, while the liquid held within, the soma, would, in its essence, be of the moon.

Ultimately the Grail legend tells of a path of elevation by submission or cooperation, and tells of the use of a lunar liquid. But this is a submission in order to be integrated into a divine hierarchy that unites both the lunar and solar. The Grail quester accepts that service is central to the functioning of the Grail, to the working of the complex system of the soma sacrifice, becoming thus an instrument of something higher rather than making domination and control his spiritual goal. The path of the Grail quester is a path of devotion, to the Grail and to its governing deity, the stalwart but somewhat passive character found in the the concept of a “keeper” of the Grail underlining this fact. Yet, as a Horse Twin, the Grail quester is also a bringer of the necessary lunar element into the solar spiritual economy, and thus a perfecter of the solar realm by the unification of these two spheres. Eliade again comments on this general possibility in regard to Tantric techniques, in which 

an attempt is made to "unify" the moon and the sun, to get beyond the opposition between things, to be reintegrated in the primeval unity. This myth of reintegration is to be found almost everywhere in the history of religion in an infinity of variations-and fundamentally it is an expression of the thirst to abolish dualisms, endless returnings and fragmentary existences (Eliade, Patterns in Comparative Religion).    

The understanding of the deeper substructure of the Grail legend, with its roots going back at least 5000 years (the time of unity of these branches being around 2900 BCE), obviously makes relatively superfluous the endless speculations on where this or that individual surface-level element originated. It is perfectly possible that certain names or physical characteristics of objects or motifs may have been brought in from the mediterranean, from the middle east, from the Scythian steppe, etc. -- if such importation was even necessary, given what we now can see for ourselves -- without significantly altering the legend, sometimes enhancing or elaborating, sometimes weakening, the existing meaning. Most obviously, the entire legend did after all undergo a transformation into the Christian symbol-language, and was reinterpreted through that religious lens to reach the form in which we have received it. Yet beneath these layers the specific elements of the original structure still show through and preserve their original significance.

The Lunar Cycle as a whole has in fact several layers of significance that we can still appreciate today in our own religious understanding. As we have pointed out, the marriage of Soma and Surya, which forms the starting point of the cycle, was seen by the Vedics as providing the divine model of all earthly marriages, and from its example we have the whole series of customary marriage rites: the "Gandharva"-aided period of celibacy after the wedding, the going around the sacred fire or "Agni," among many other elaborate procedures. 

Additionally, the idea that the cycle, particularly the "Aesir-Vanir War" episode, depicts the process of coming together of the various castes of the divine society, which is reflected as well in the castes of the human society (as we see in the pseudo-historical version involving Romulus), that is, the perfection of the organic society. With this is also the acceptance of the lower caste, the third or "producer" caste, into the society of the higher castes. This is reflected in the Vedic society by the fact that the Vaishya caste is considered one of the "twice-born" castes, along with the higher Kshatriyas and Brahmins, and are allowed to participate in the rites of the Vedic religion and to be afforded access to the sacrifices, initiations, and reincarnation. It is a point of curiosity whether the Proto-Indo-Europeans ever experienced a period before the elevation of the producer caste to full participation in the elite religion, whether the Aesir-Vanir War motif depicts any historical material or instead narrates a primordial event that brought about a unity that has always been, in both divine and human society. 

Along with this elevation of the third caste, divine and human, is the granting of the Horse Twin gods access to the immortalizing rituals. Whether this newly granted immortality consists in reincarnation, eternal afterlife, some higher transcendence, or the possibility of all of these, is a question beyond the scope of this study. Once the immortalizing rite is put in play, it is difficult to limit its spiritual possibilities from intersecting even with the "regal path," hence we see the elevation, intensification and universalization of the symbol of the Grail in the "Ghibelline" Middle Ages, which process began to conflate the Grail with the "cup of sovereignty." A three day long soma sacrifice was after all also an important part of the Vedic asvamedha "Horse Sacrifice," which scholar Nick Allen says is "the highest of the royal rituals and establishes the cosmic supremacy of a king" (Allen, "Why Did Odysseus Become a Horse?", 4). But what must be recognized is that this granted immortality of the third function gods was also the opening of the possibility of immortality to members of the third caste of the human society. As the divine representatives of their caste are seen to do, so the humans of that caste ought to do. Thus the quest of the Grail continues, and remains open, even to those not of the elitest castes, a path toward the waters of immortality, for those who are prepared to ask the question of self-identity, to serve the king, to retrieve light from darkness, to re-unify, to re-integrate, and to lead. 

*******

Charts and Glossary

Aesir-Vanir War Motif in Various Branches (with Norse parallel names as reference):

Vedic:

The Asvins (Freyr) desire to be allowed access to the soma sacrifice of the high gods. The incarnation of the moon god Soma, Chyavana (Njörðr), helps them by confronting king of the gods Indra in single combat, summoning a demon to fight him, and making him submit with his magic. The Asvins join the society of the high gods, gain access to the soma sacrifice, and become its priests. In one version, Dadhyanc (possibly Mimir), the keeper of the secret of the soma, is beheaded by Indra but has his head preserved and reattached. The Asvins subsequently marry Savitri.

Welsh:

Welsh Pryderi (Freyr) marries Cigfa and then touches a magical golden bowl that takes him to the otherworld. Once Pryderi returns, the high god Gwydion (Oðinn) wants the swine of the underworld (symbol of power of fertility) so he trades the third function god Pryderi a bunch of warrior-related items (war horses, shields and dogs), but it’s a trick, the horses etc are an illusion. This results in a war between Pryderi’s and Gwydion’s forces, which ends in a truce where hostages are exchanged. Then the peace falls apart and Pryderi is killed by Gwydion in a duel, but the swine now belong to Gwydion, integrating the power of fertility into the society of higher gods.  

Roman:

The legendary incarnation of the high god, Romulus (Oðinn), and his Romans want wives so they trick the Sabines and take their women. This results in a war which ends in a truce where Romulus and the Sabine king Titus (Freyr) share rulership. Then the peace falls apart and Titus is killed by Romulus’ men, but the women and other Sabines have already become part of Rome, integrating the power of fertility into the higher society.

Irish:

Irish Aengus (Freyr), is foster son of moon god Midir (Njörðr) and doesn’t know his true parentage. When he is a young man he discovers he is actually son of Father Sky, the Dagda. He goes to Dagda to be acknowledged as his son and get his inheritance. Dagda acknowledges him, but tells him the land he is to inherit is occupied by Elcmar aka Nuada (Varuna aspect of Oðinn).    

Aengus goes armed to Elcmar’s fort with Midir. Aengus threatens Elcmar's life with a “feint,” and as a result they agree to a deal as a compromise: Aengus will get to spend a day and night as king of the land. This is a trick however, and since “all the world is spent in day and night” the deal means that Aengus gets to keep the kingship of the land forever. In another version, the method of removing Elcmar is called a magical lay or chant, both cases then depicting a kind of verbal magic. Fuamnach, the sorceress wife of Midir, is later burned to death and Aengus marries Caer Ibormeith.

Norse:

A sorceress is burned and speared to death three times by the Norse high gods the Aesir, triggering a conflict between the Vanir, led by the Moon god Njörðr and Horse Son Freyr, and the Aesir, led by Oðinn. The Vanir besiege the halls of the Aesir, forcing a truce in which hostages are exchanged, and Njörðr and Freyr are integrated into the Aesir society and become priests of their sacrifice. Mimir, keeper of the well of wisdom, is beheaded, but his head is preserved by Oðinn and it speaks to him. Freyr marries Gerðr.

Grail Legend:

A prophetic woman is struck by Arthur’s (in Oðinn's role here) knight Kay for predicting that the Grail quester Perceval (Freyr) will become the greatest of the knights. For this abuse, Perceval seeks revenge, confronting and defeating Kay and Sagremor in single combat. As a result, Arthur accepts Perceval into his retinue of knights, and subsequently Perceval takes the high rite of communion for the first time and becomes keeper of the Grail in which communion is kept. In the middle of this sequence, Perceval woos Blanchefleur.

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Renewing the Youth of the Gods and The Marriage of Soma and Suryā in Various Branches (with Norse parallel names as reference):

Vedic:

The eye of Chyavana (Njörðr) is poked out by a clod of dirt thrown by playing youths. In recompense, the king gives his daughter Sukanya (Skaði) to Chyavana to wed. After meddling in their marriage by trying to woo the princess, the Asvins (Freyr) administer the magical herbal paste to the aged Chyavana, renewing his youth. Chyavana and the princess undergo a “choosing” test in which the princess must pick Chyavana out in his newly youthful form while he stands next to the Asvins. She chooses correctly and they live happily.

Irish:

The eye of Midir (Njörðr) is knocked out by a sprig of holly thrown by playing youths. In recompense, Midir must be given Etain (Skaði) to marry. After many twists and turns, Midir’s rival, Eochaidh Airem must undergo a choosing scene in which he has to choose Etain in swan form from among many other swan maidens. He chooses incorrectly, and Midir and Etain live happily.

Norse:

The golden apples which renew the youth of the gods are stolen by Thjazi. Thjazi is killed and the apples are regained. In recompense for his death, Thjazi’s eyes are removed and placed in the night sky as stars, and Thjazi’s daughter Skaði is given Njörðr as husband. They undergo a choosing scene in which Skaði chooses Njörðr out from the other gods, though not entirely happily.

Grail Legend:

The golden cup of Arthur (Oðinn) is stolen by Arthur’s hostile neighbor the red knight, leaving Arthur and his wife in a paralytic state. Perceval (Freyr) kills the red knight (Thjazi) in single combat by driving his lance through his eye, and retrieves the golden cup. After meddling in their marriage at first by kissing his wife and taking her ring, Perceval helps reunite the Knight of the Tent and his wife, and they live happily.  

Welsh:

Pwyll (Bragi) drives the hounds of Arawn (Njörðr) away from a dead stag and lets his own hounds eat instead. In recompense to Arawn, Pwyll agrees to be lord of Annwn for a year. During that year Pwyll sleeps next to the wife of Annwn without making love to her and defeats Arawn’s hostile neighbor Hafgan (Thjazi) in single combat. Arawn and his wife continue to live happily and Pwyll is granted shared lordship of Annwn as a reward.

** If the Horse Twins are interpreted as gods of the Morning/Evening star, the mythic pattern we have discussed under the name “Aesir-Vanir War” may have interesting resonances with the well-known biblical story of Lucifer. In both the Roman and Welsh versions of this myth, the third function god who fights the higher gods is subsequently killed, perhaps reflecting the fall of the morning star after its rise. If Lucifer comes from a mythos relating to the morning star, then he too rises, confronts the High King of the Gods, but is eventually defeated and falls down to the depths, a symbol of hubris thereafter. These could be reflections of the same phenomenon of the rising and falling Morning Star as seen slightly differently by these separate cultures. 

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Key Motifs in Each Branch:

Magical Item that Renews the Youth of the Gods:

Golden apples (Norse)

Magical herbs (Vedic) 

—— Irish n/a (Irish)

Regeneration ability of Hafgan? (Welsh)

Golden cup (Grail legend)

Aesir-Vanir War motif:

Aesir-Vanir War (Norse)

Chyavana battles Indra (Vedic)

Taking of the Sid Brugh na Boinne (Irish)

War of the Swine of Annwn (Welsh)

Perceval duels Kay and Sagremor (Grail legend)

Rape of the Sabine Women (Roman)

The Eye Poking:

Killing Thjazi and Removal of his eyes (Norse)

Poking of Chyavana's eye (Vedic)

Poking out of Midir's eye (Irish)

Driving the lance through the Red Knight's eye (Grail legend)

-- -- Welsh n/a (the single blow to Hafgan's head?) (Welsh)

The Offense that Requires Recompense:

Killing of Thjazi (Norse)

Poking of Chyavana's Eye (Vedic)

Poking out of Midir's Eye (Irish)

Driving off of hounds (Welsh)

-- -- Grail legend n/a (Grail legend)

Occupying Seat/Mound Out of Turn:

Freyr sneaking onto Hlidskjalf (Norse)

Samvarana occupying the sacred mountain out of turn (Vedic)

-- -- Irish n/a (Irish)

Pryderi occupying Gorsedd Arberth out of turn (Welsh)

Siege Perilous (Grail legend)

Attack on the Sorceress:

Burning of Gullveig (Norse)

-- -- Vedic n/a (Vedic)

Burning of Fuamnach (Irish)

-- -- Welsh n/a (Welsh)

Striking of prophetic woman at Arthur’s court (Grail legend)

Transference of Sun Princess to Another Husband:

Skaði switches to Oðinn (Norse)

Suryā switches to Gandharva and Agni (Vedic)

Etain becomes temporary ward of Aengus and wife of Eochu (Irish)

Rhiannon switches to Manawydan (Welsh)

Grail n/a (Grail legend)

Interference in and then helping the Marriage of Soma and Suryā:

Norse n/a (Norse)

Asvins interfere in and then help marriage of Chyavana and Sukanya (Vedic)

Aengus helps woo Etain for Midir then becomes temporary keeper of Etain as a fly (Irish)

Pwyll becomes temporary husband of Arawn’s wife (Welsh)

Perceval interferes in and then helps marriage of the Knight of the Tent and his wife (Grail legend)

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Chart of Relevant Deities:

Horse Twin Parentage Comparison Chart:

(Oval = Moon God; Grey Rectangle = Horse Twin)

Glossary of Names:

Aed – Son of the Dagda and brother of Aengus, name means “fire”

Aengus Og – Irish Horse Twin, foster son of Midir, son of Dagda, husband of Caer

Agni – Vedic god of fire, priestly god embodied in the sacred flame, third husband of Suryā

Arawn – Welsh lord of the underworld of Annwn, probable “Soma” Moon God, model of the elder Grail King and probably of the Knight of the Tent 

Asvins – Vedic Horse Twins, sons of Dyaus, husbands of Savitri

Blanchefleur – Beloved of Perceval

Bragi – Court poet of the Norse gods, husband of Iðunn, narrator of the first portion of the Norse Lunar Cycle

Caer Ibormeith – Irish sun princess, consort of Aengus who Aengus first sees in a dream

Chyavana – Legendary stand-in for one of the deities who were combined to make the later Vedic god Soma; sage and husband of Sukanya

Cigfa – Welsh sun princess, wife of Pryderi

Dadhyanc – Possible legendary stand-in for one of the deities who were combined to make the later Vedic god Soma; sage and keeper of the secret of the soma, is beheaded while wearing the head of a horse, and is then given back his original head

Dagda – Irish chief god of sky and wind, true father of Aengus, and father of Brigid and Aed among others

Elcmar – Irish king who is occupying the land that is to be Aengus' inheritance, Aengus tricks him out of it. Theorized to be another name for the god Nuada

Elder Grail King – Lives in the Grail castle and is sustained by a single wafer of communion from the Grail each day. One of the stand-ins for the “Soma” god 

Eochu Airem – A husband of Etain after Midir, Midir steals Etain back by tricking him, name means “Horseman Ploughman”

Etain – Irish horse and sun princess, wife of Midir

Fuamnach – Lunar sorceress and wife of Midir, burned to death by Manannan

Freyr – Norse Horse Twin, son of Njorðr and husband of Gerðr

Gandharva Visvavasu – Chief Gandharva, court singer of the gods, protege of Soma and guardian of the soma and of virginity, second husband of Suryā

Gerðr  – Norse sun princess and wife of Freyr

Gullveig – Sorceress burned and stabbed to death by the Aesir in Oðinn's hall, the violence against her may trigger the Aesir-Vanir War, name connects her to the mead

Hafgan – Hostile neighbor of Arawn, name meaning “summer-bright,” can be killed only by being given no more than one blow, is killed by Pwyll

Hengist and Horsa – Pseudo-historical versions of the Horse Twins, names meaning “Stallion” and “Horse.” Compare the Horse Twin names Hengist, Aengus, Ing, Ingenius

Kay – Arrogant knight of Arthur's court, strikes the prophetic woman and is later defeated by Perceval in a duel in retribution

Knight of the Tent – Husband of the Lady of the Tent, forsakes his wife for assumed infidelity, but is reconciled to her later by Perceval. One of the probable stand-ins for the “Soma” god

Iðunn – Norse sun princess and wife of Bragi, whose golden apples, which renew the youth of the gods, are stolen by Thjazi

Lady of the Tent – Lady who Perceval kisses and then takes a ring from, is forsaken by her husband for assumed infidelity but is reconciled to him later by Perceval

Mabon – Welsh “young son” who is imprisoned in the Underworld and must be rescued by Arthur. Possibly identifiable with Pryderi 

Manannan – Irish fire-priest god, lord of the ocean and psychopomp

Manawydan – Welsh fire-priest god, second husband of Rhiannon

Midir – Irish “Soma” Moon God, husband of Fuamnach and Etain, foster father of Freyr

Mímir – Norse god, possible aspect of the “Soma” Moon God or related “Yama” underworld god, keeper of the well of illumination who is beheaded after the Aesir-Vanir war

Mother of Perceval – Grail legend stand-in for Rhiannon

Njörðr –  Norse god associated with the sea, one aspect of the “Soma” Moon God

Oðinn – Chief of the Norse high gods the Aesir, possibly also Norse fire-priest, second husband of Skaði 

Pelles/Fisher King – younger wounded king of the Grail castle, keeper of the Grail, Perceval first meets him fishing in a lake. Is given the name Pelles in later versions

Perceval – The Grail quester, lover of Blanchefleur, nephew of the Elder Grail king

Peredur – Welsh quester, influenced by or influence of Perceval, his tale tells nearly the same narrative as Chretien's poem about Perceval

Peredurus – A king appearing in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Historiae Regum Brittania, unites with his brother Ingenius to take the kingdom from their older brother, divides the island between them. Probable pseudo-historical version of the Horse Twin god

Prophetic Woman – Woman at Arthur's court who prophetically laughs or smiles when she sees Perceval, and is then struck by the knight Kay

Pryderi – Welsh Horse Twin, son of Pwyll and Rhiannon, husband of Cigfa

Pwyll – Welsh Gandharva, first husband of Rhiannon, father of Pryderi

Red Knight – Hostile neighbor of Arthur who is at war with him, steals the golden cup of Guinevere and then is pierced through the eye with a lance by Perceval 

Rhiannon – Welsh Horse/Sun Princess, wife of Pwyll and Manawydan, mother of Pryderi

Samvarana – Legendary stand-in for the Gandharva Visvavasu, husband of Tapati

Savitri – Vedic sun princess, daughter of Sun god Savitr, wife of the Asvins

Sharyati – Father of Sukanya. Legendary Vedic stand-in for an aspect of the Sun god, Vivasvat-Surya, depicted as grandson of Vivasvat-Surya

Skaði – Norse sun princess, daughter of Thjazi, wife of Njorðr and Oðinn

Soma – Vedic god of the moon, of the waters, of wealth, and of the liquid of immortality and illumination. First husband of Suryā

Sukanya – Legendary Vedic stand-in for Surya, sun princess, wife of Chyavana-Soma, daughter of Sharyati and great-grand-daughter of Vivastvat-Surya

Suryā – Vedic bride of Soma, daughter of the Sun god Surya, sun princess goddess of the sunbeam or the radiance of the sun

Thjazi – Norse sun deity, father of Skaði, possible half-brother of Iðunn

Tapati – Vedic sun princess, daughter of Vivasvat, wife of Samvarana

Vasistha – Legendary Vedic stand-in for Agni, rishi and advisor of Samvarana

Wife of Arawn – Welsh queen of the Underworld of Annwn

Wife of Knight of the Tent – Legendary stand-in for the wife of Arawn-Soma

Bibliography:

Apastamba, Griha Sutra

The Avesta

Britannica.com

Ceisiwr Serith, CeisiwrSerith.com

Charles Squire, Celtic Myth and Legend

Chretien de Troye, Perceval, the Story of the Grail

David Spaan, “The Place of Manannan in Irish Mythology”

The Dindshenchas

“Fosterage of the House of the Two Pails”

Geoffrey of Monmouth, Historiae Regium Brittaniae

Georges Dumezil, Archaic Roman Religion

Georges Dumezil, Gods of the Ancient Northmen

Georges Dumezil, Mitra-Varuna

Gregory Nagy, Greek Mythology and Poetics

Hartmut Scharfe, “Rgveda, Avesta, and Beyond”

Heimskringla

Hermann Grassman, Wörterbuch zum Rig-Veda

Hermann Oldenberg, Religion of the Vedas

Homer, The Iliad

James Frances Katherinus Hewitt

Jarich G. Oosten, The War of the Gods

Jeffrey Gantz, The Mabinogion

John Matthews, Sources of the Grail

Jones and Ryan, Encyclopedia of Hinduism

John Carey and John T. Koch, Celtic Heroic Age

-The Wooing of Etain

-“The Dream of Oengus”

Lady Augusta Gregory, Gods and Fighting Men

-“The Pursuit of Diarmuid and Grainne”

-“The Adventures of Art, son of Conn”

-“His Three Calls to Cormac”

Livy, Ab Urbe Condita

Matthias Egeler, Celtic Influences in Germanic Religion

Michael Shapiro, “Neglected Evidence of Dioscurism (Divine Twinning) in the Old Slavic Pantheon”

Mike Ashley, The Mammoth Book of King Arthur

Mircea Eliade, Patterns in Comparative Religion

Narayan Aiyangar, Essays on Indo-Aryan Mythology

The Rig Veda, Ralph T. Griffith

The Rig Veda, Jameson and Brereton

The Rig Veda, Wendy Doniger

Robert Hockert on Heithr, from ?

Roger Sherman Loomis, Celtic Myth and Arthurian Romance

Timothy J. Stephany, Lunar Illusions

Tommy Kuusela “Halls, Gods, and Giants”

Satapatha Brahmana

Snorri Sturluson, The Prose Edda

The Upanishads

Ursula Dronke, The Poetic Edda

Viktor Rydberg, “Toward the Baldur Myth”

Vyasa, The Mahabharata

William Reaves, The Epicist no. 3, “Idunn and the Elves”

Wolfram von Eschenbach, Parzival

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